Introduction to Persian Literature... Continued
Issa Dibaj
To study Persian poetry then, is to study the Iranian mind. In this issue, after a brief introduction to Persian literature, we take a closer look at Iran's greatest epic, Shahnameh. Issa Dibaj analyses the role of fate in the poem (see article), while Dr Arley Lowen explores the impossible tensions that face the hero Rostam as he pursues reputation (see article)
With the advent and spread of Islam in the sixth and the seventh centuries, most of the countries in the region that were conquered by the Arab armies lost their language to Arabic and eventually even gave up their own national identities, becoming "Arab". Such was the case with Iraq, Syria, Egypt, and much of North Africa. Persia or today's Iran, however, was a big exception: not only did it not lose its language and its literary modes of expression, it even incorporated Arab literary forms to enrich its unique literary heritage.
Persian literature as such can be argued to have begun in verse in the 9th1 century (AD) with the poetry of Rudaki -often known as the father of Persian poetry. It rapidly flourished in northeastern Iran and the northern parts of India, so much so that by the 11th century, Persian was the second most important language after Arabic. The glory of Persian literature can be said to have peaked between eleventh through to the fourteenth centuries. Poets such as Firdowsi (11th c.), Hafiz (early 14th c.), Saadi (13th c.) and Rumi (13th c.) are not only national treasures, they are known, read and appreciated throughout the world. As well as using Arabic poetic styles and concepts, these poets drew extensively on the vast repertory of pre-Islamic Iranian legends and stories dating back to Iran's glorious ancient history and especially its national epic tradition.
Persian poetry can roughly be divided into three broad categories: Epic, Lyric, and Didactic. The epic category celebrates the stories of Iran's ancient past; it is history mixed with legend, and mostly recounts the lofty deeds of Iranian legendary heroes -though unlike epic in the Western tradition, it is not limited to just one major character2. Firdowsi's Shahnameh is the most famous epic in Farsi. Lyrics are mostly love poems in the form of Ghazal which express love in both its physical as well as mystical sense. The Ghazaliat of Hafiz (written in the early fourteenth century) is the best example. And finally, under didactic poetry comes all those writings, in verse or in prose, that are meant to teach. They generally convey -either directly or indirectly- some form of advice, moral precepts or spiritual truth. Saadi's Bustan and Golestan, written in mid thirteenth century, and Rumi's Divan-e Shams and Masnavi-e Maanavi written in late thirteenth century are perfect examples of this type of poetry. Elegies and Odes (or Qasideh) also come under this category. It is to be mentioned that Persian poetry is always rhymed. The principal verse forms are the Qasideh, Masnavi, Ghazal and Ruba'i. The Qasideh or ode is a long poem, usually of a didactic or religious nature; the Masnavi, written in rhyming couplets, is employed for heroic, romantic, or narrative verse; the Ghazal (ode or lyric) is a comparatively short poem, usually amorous or mystical and varying from four to sixteen couplets, all on one rhyme. The Ruba'i is a quatrain with a particular metre. A collection of quatrains is called "ruba'iyyat" (the plural of ruba'i). Finally, a collection of a poet's Ghazals and other verse, arranged alphabetically according to the rhymes, is known as a divan.
In the West poetry is generally only studied by an elite minority and very few people would be able to quote verse from memory. In Iran though poetry is an indispensable part of people's everyday life. They love their poets, and know their poetry. They quote it widely, and enjoy doing so. In fact, it has become part of their daily language. To emphasize their point or sometimes simply for fun, they occasionally quote an entire Ghazal, and receive admiration from their addressees for doing so. In fact, there is a popular game in Iran called the Recitation Game, where youngsters get together in groups of four or six. One of them recites a line, then the next person should think of another line which begins with the last letter of the previous line, and so on. Anyone who fails to recite from memory a line beginning with the ending of the previous quotation is out. The game is so popular that there are even quiz shows on television featuring the best players.
Iranians also show their great love for their poets by making their burial places a place of pilgrimage. Each year thousands of Iranians will visit these mausoleums to seek solace and inspiration. This is a spiritually uplifting experience for them. The mausoleums of Attar and Khayyam in Neishaboor, and Firdowsi in Tus, both near Mashad, and the tombs of Hafiz and Saadi in Shiraz, are adorned with gold and other precious stones as a sign of Iranians' respect and devotion for their literary heroes. Some people even seek the answer to their everyday problems in lines of poetry. There are special places in Tehran and other Iranian cities where those of a more superstitious temperament go to find out about their futures by asking the poet Hafiz to tell their fortunes. For a small fee, a fortune-teller will cut up lines of the poetry of Hafiz and put them in a birdcage where a finch is normally kept. Whichever line of poetry the finch picks up, is given to the customer who will then apply the verse to his own life, becoming happy or sad accordingly.
However, the popularity of Persian poetry is not just confined to the boundaries of Iran. Its impact is felt throughout the world, from the Arab countries, Turkey, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India right through to Europe and America. The works of Firdowsi, Rumi, Hafiz and Khayyam have long been world classics, and have inspired many western poets. Goethe's poems "West-Ostlicher Divan" which first brought Hafiz to the attention of the German speaking world was a major influence in the Pre-Romantic movement which started in Germany and quickly spread to England and other parts of Europe. Matthew Arnold and Alfred Lord Tennyson were also inspired by Persian poets, as is evident from Arnold's "The Story of Sohrab and Rustam" (1853). In fact, this trend is a central aspect of Victorian Orientalism, itself an offshoot of Pre-Romantic interest in Hafiz and other Persian poets. The crowning figure in this respect is -of course- Edward FitzGerald who with his brilliant translation of Rubaiyat, immortalized Khayyam's place in English literature.
Given the undeniable significance of Persian literature for the Iranian public, its importance in bringing the message of gospel closer to the hearts of Farsi speakers in the Iran region cannot be overemphasized. The following articles aim to provide such an understanding into the way Iranian heart responds.
1The pre-Islamic Persian literature, written in Old and Middle Persian and dating from 650BC to 650AD, does not have any major literary figure. Modern Persian as we know it today only came into existence during the 9th C. AD. Before then the only literary work of some significance were the sacred writings collectively known as the 'Avesta'.
2According to Aristotle's 'Poetics' an epic should center around one major hero, so for example, in Homer's Illiad and Odysseus, both epics revolve around the central character, Odysseus.
Classical Persian Poet's Corner
Poet Dates AD Major Literary Compositions
Rudaki 859 - 940
Known as the Father of Persian Poetry. Written 100,000 lyric couplets in New Persian. Fewer than 1,000 have survived. Courtly and mystic themes
Firdowsi 932 - 1025
The Epic of Shahnameh (Book of Kings), written in 975. History of Persian kings from earliest times to the death of the last Sassanid King in 651. Recounted heroic deeds related to Iran's past.
Naser-e-Khosraw 1004 - 1072
Rawshanai Nameh (Book of Lights) and Saffar Nameh (Diary of a journey through Syria and Palestine). Wrote mainly philosophical, didactic, and devotional Islamic verse and prose.
Omar Khayyam 1048 - 1131
'Rubayat' (The Quatrains). Hedonism tinged with scepticism and at times cynicism.
Attar 1145 - 1221
Manteg al Tayr (Conference of the Birds) This is a mystic Sufi narrative
Saadi 1213 - 1291
'Gulistan' and 'Bustan' (both mean Garden). This is moral advice, a little like the Proverbs.
Rumi 1207 - 1283
Divan e Shams and Masnave I Ma'navi (Spiritual Couplets). Mystical and Philosophical writings.
Nezami 1141 - 1209
The story of Leila and Majnun and Khosrow and Shireen. Romantic and didactic verse and prose.
Hafiz 1325 - 1389
Divan e Ghazaliat. Amorous lyrics, symbolizing mystical truths
From the mid 14th century to the late 19th century there were no poets of comparable stature with the classical poets listed above. In the late 19th and early 20th century, under the influence of the avant-garde movement in the West, a new generation of poets and writers emerged in Iran. The most famous poets are: Nimayoushij, Akhavan Saless, Sepehri, Shamloo, and Nader Naderpour. The most famous prose writers are Hedayat and Jalal al Ahmad.